DIY HHO Hydrogen on Demand System

3.19.2011

Advanced transmutation processes and their application for the decontamination of radioactive nuclear wastes

A. Michrowski

President, Planetary Association for Clean Energy, Inc.

Abstract:

There are deviations to the standard model of radioactive atomic nuclei decay reported in the literature. These include persistent effects of chemical states and physical environment and the natural, low-energy transmutation phenomena associated with the vegetation processes of plants. The theory of neutral currents is proposed by Nobelist O. Costa de Beauregard to account for the observed natural transmutations, also known as the Kervran reaction. "Cold fusion" researchers have also reported anomalies in the formation of new elements in cathodes. This body of knowledge provides the rationale for the observed and successful and developed advanced transmutation processes for the disposal of nuclear waste developed by Yull Brown involving a gas developed by him with a stoichiometric mixture of ionic hydrogen and ionic oxygen compressed up to 100 psi. Another procedure, still in experimental stages, involves the environmental interaction of non-Hertzian electromagnetic fields and targeted radioactive samples. In both methods, the radioactivity in samples decreases by up to 97% rapidly and at low cost.

Since the discovery of natural radioactivity, it was generally believed that radioactive processes obeyed orderly, simple decay rate formulae and that nuclear processes operated completely independent of extra nuclear phenomena such as the chemical state of the system or physical parameters such as pressure or temperature. A solid body of scientific literature describes a small percentage variation of the order of 0.1 to 5% in the decay constant under a variety of chemical and physical conditions. [7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 23, 28]

The standard definition of half-life or half-decay time is the time taken by a given amount of a particular radioactive substance to undergo disintegration or decay of half of its atoms. Measured half-lives vary from less than a millionth of a second to billions of years in the case of Uranium. There are four modes of decay, three are named after the first three letters of the Greek alphabet, i.e., alpha, beta and gamma and the fourth is the recently discovered proton decay.

Current model of decay

By way of review, for the Bohr-Rutherford model of the atom, the nucleus is composed of the heavy particles or hadron or the proton and the neutron, and is surrounded by a cloud of electrons (or light particles or leptons) the number of which depends on the atomic number (for neutral atoms) and also the valence state (for ionized atoms). Alpha particles are Helium nuclei, 4He2 consisting of two protons and 2 neutrons; beta particles are electrons (negative charge) and positrons (positive charge) and gamma rays which are in the short wave length of the electromagnetic radiation band; the proton is a hadron. Alpha particles and protons are strongly interacting particles as are all hadrons.

The current model of beta decay is that an inter nucleon neutron spontaneously decays into a proton and an electron (or beta particle and an anti-electron neutrino, no p. + e. + c. A neutrino is a zero-rest mass spin 1/2 particle which conserves momentum in the decay process. There are many pure beta emitters throughout the periodic table; Carbon 14C and deuterium are two examples. Beta particles penetrate substance less deeply than gamma radiation but are hundreds of times more penetrating than alpha particles. Beta particles can be stopped by an inch of wood or by a thin sheet of aluminum foil, for example. The energy of most emitted alpha particles are stopped by a piece of paper and the most energetic gamma rays require a thick piece of lead or concrete.

Electromagnetic radiation emission from atomic processes can be in the x-ray energy range and nuclear in the x-ray and gamma ray energy range.

It is believed that all radioactive atomic nuclei decay spontaneously without prior cause at a specific and steady decay rate which differs for each radioactive isotope. Some precise measurements of half lives have been made which show deviations of the standard type decay curves which appear to depend on non-nuclear variable conditions in origin and structure.

Past measurements of variations in the decay constant N = Noe-with T1/2 = 0.693/are based on crude instruments from some 70 years ago. Later, with more sophisticated electronics, the value of of the decay of Beryllium 7Be, was first shown in 1949 to deviate by 0.1% between atomic Be and molecular BeO. In 1965, the of Niobium, 90Nb, is altered by 4% between the metal and the fluoride form, as discussed by G. Emery. H. C. Dudley reported on studies that have varied decay characteristics of twelve other radionuclides according to changes in the energy states of the orbital electrons, by reason of pressure, temperature, electric and magnetic fields, stress in monomolecular layers and other physical atomic conditions. [10]

The alteration of decay rates by non-nuclear processes may not be truly random and would seem to require a new theoretical model. As these decays occur, the term nuclear may need to be expanded to include reactions and processes involving the entire atom and even multi-atom crystal matrix forms rather than just mass-energy changes in only the nucleus. [19, 22, 23]

observed deviations from accepted decay laws

Not too well known is a quite prodigious body of work on the persistent effects of chemical states and physical environment on the deviation from the accepted decay law of nuclear decay rates. Theoretical as well as experimental research has been conducted. [7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 23, 28] In 1947, R. Daudel and E. Segré predicted that under certain conditions a dependence of the decay constant on the chemical and physical environment of the nucleus should be observable; subsequent to these predictions such a dependence was experimentally observed (with R. F. Leinzinger and C. Wiegand) in the K capture decay of 7Be and the internal conversion decay of the 99m isomeric state of Technetium.

During the decay process, the chemical environment of the nucleus is changed, thus altering the decay constant. R. Daudel pointed out that the isomeric decay constant of the 2-keV isomeric state transition in the Technetium isotope 99mTc arose from a change in the electron density near the nucleus. J. C. Slater suggested that the faster decay rate observed for the RTcO4 compound form is due to a greater squeezing of the Tc atoms with the metal Tc-Tc bond distance of 2.7 Å. Note that the symbol Å refers to the distance measure of one Angstrom which equals 10-8 cm.

A good example of the effect of a chemical change in the nuclear environment during radioactive decay is for the intensity change of the 122-keV E2 gamma ray observed for the 90mNb isomeric state of Niobium. This effect on the decay rate for the 21-second transition was an order of magnitude greater and in the opposite direction than observed in 99mTc and was achieved at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory by J. O. Rasmussen and his colleagues, J. A. Cooper and J M. Hollander in 1965. [27]

In 1975, Elizabeth A. Rauscher lengthened beta emissions for 20Si simply by surrounding it with specifically designed matrix material, thereby lengthening the decay rate by about 6% with only 15 minute exposure, demonstrating the impact of environmental conditions on radionuclides.

natural transmutation

Natural, low-energy transmutation phenomena have been observed for centuries. In 1799, the French chemist, Nicolas Louis Vauquelin noted that hens could excrete 500% more lime that they take in as food, suggesting a creation -- transmutation of Calcium Carbonate. Scientific literature notes many similar phenomena that occur in vegetation processes of plants as well where new elements and minerals inexplicably emerge. Nobel Nominee Prof. Louis Kervran replicated these numerous findings and advanced very far the understanding of natural, non-radioactive transmutations, acquiring in this pursuit a term for such transmutations, Kervran reaction, while engendering solid physics support from the Institut de Physique Théorique Henri Poincaré physicist, Olivier Costa de Beauregard. He stated in 1974 that the theory of weak neutral currents accounts for the transmutations observed, with due respect for the physical laws of conservation. [9, 14, 15, 16] The theory of neutral currents gave its authors, Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1979. De Beauregard proposed the following equations for biological transmutation:

n pe (1)

p p ' (2)

p p'+' (3)

Table 1. The Olivier Costa de Beauregard equations for biochemical transmutation

These equations imply the conversion of a neutron (n) to a proton (p) by virtual exchange processes -- the neutral currents of Weinberg. These processes produce protons ( p and p') of different energy levels and two neutrinos (and') of different energy levels. represents the antineutrino and e- the electron. In one state the proton will be bound to an atomic nucleus, and in the other state, it will be relatively free in a chemical binding.

In vitro transmutation

Physicist Dr. Andrija Puharich was able to observe and photograph Kervran reactions in vitro by using a high-power dark-field microscope which was developed by the Canadian scientist, Gaston Naessens. Kervran reactions were documented by him to include the oxygen atom entering into a virtual nuclear reaction with p or n to yield 14N or 19F, by using an electrolytic process similar to that of Prof. Yull Brown, as disclosed by Puharich in his U.S. Patent 4,394,230, Method and apparatus for splitting water molecules. [20, 21]

There exists as well the phenomenon of transmutative "digestion". L. Magos and T. W. Clarkson of the British Research Council Carshalton Laboratories noted disintegration of the radioactive isotope 203Hg ingested by rats, a volatilization which they ultimately attributed to such bacteria as Klebsiella aerogenes. [17]

cold-fusion examples

On June 19, 1995, Texas A&M University hosted a low-energy transmutation Conference, sponsored by the "father of electrochemistry", Professor Dr. John O'M Bockris. Some of the papers which were presented noted anomalies in the formation of new elements in cathodes -- definitely not sourced from contamination -- which were involved in cold-fusion experiments. For example: Drs. T. Ohmori and Reiko Notoya, both of Hokkaido University, reported Iron formation in Gold and Palladium cathodes, Potassium changing into Calcium, Cs133 producing an element of mass 134, and Na23 becoming Na24; Dr. John Dash of Portland State University reported spots of silver, cadmium and gold protruding in palladium electrodes in both light and heavy water cells; Dr. Robert Bush of California Polytechnic, Pomona, reported strontium on the surface of nickel cathodes. [18]

low-temperature transmutation

Very pertinent is the long-term research by Dr. Georgiy S. Rabzi of the Ukrainian International Academy of Original Ideas who reported his analyses of the mechanism of low-temperature transmutation, which he has conducted since 1954. He passed out samples to attendees: a steel nut which acquired the color of copper and was reduced in size; magnetic stainless steel turned non-magnetic, asbestos which became like ceramic. No radioactivity had been observed in any of his experiments and he is convinced that radioactive wastes can be stabilized. [18]

These observations, originating from various domains of scientific research form a solid case of low level advanced transmutation -- with minuscule power and signal strength and sometimes without any, i.e. in nature alone.

Advanced transmutation: disposing of nuclear waste

Experimental results obtained by advanced transmutation have direct bearing on the problem of disposal of nuclear wastes.

The first relies on the interaction of nuclear wastes with ionic hydrogen and ionic oxygen gas known as Brown's Gas. Brown's Gas has been developed by a Bulgarian-born Australian national, Prof. Yull Brown. In his process, water is separated into its two constituents, hydrogen and oxygen in a way that allows them to be mixed under pressure and then burned simultaneously and safely in a 2:1 proportion. The proprietary process results in a gas containing ionic hydrogen and oxygen in the required proportions which can be generated economically and safely and be compressed up to 100 psi. [2, 5, 6]

Brown's Gas is a "cornerstone of a technological edifice" with many commercial and industrial applications.

At this time, Brown's Gas generators are mass produced in the Bautou, a major research city in the People's Republic of China by the huge NORINCO factory which also manufacturers locomotives and ordinances -- and services the nation's nuclear industry complex. Most of these generators (producing up to 4,000 litres/hour/2.4 litres of water at 0.45 MPa with power requirements ranging from 0.66 kW up to 13.2 kW) are marketed for their superior welding and brazing qualities, costing between $ 2,000 and $ 17,000. Some units have been used for the decontamination of radioactive materials since 1991. Brown's Gas generators produce between 300 and 340 litres of Brown's Gas per 1 kW energy DC current approximately and one litre of water produces about 1,866.6 litres of gas. A generator which produces 10,000 litres per hour has been built specifically for the reduction of nuclear waste. Prof. Brown first successfully de-radioactivated radionuclides of Cobalt 60 in his laboratory in Sydney, Australia with initial experimental results of about 50%. [28]

On August 24, 1991, Baotou's Nuclear Institute # 202 released a report, The results of experiments to dispose of radiation materials by Brown's Gas which establishes that experimentation on Cobalt 60 radiation source decreased radiation by about 50% or half-life of radiation. [4] Sometimes more radiation is decreased, a fact which requires further investigation of the possibilities for decreasing more of the radiation by treatments of single exposures to Brown's Gas flame, lasting only a few minutes, as in the samples described in the table below.

First Experiment Second Experiment

Original

Source Intensity 580 millirads/hour 115 - 120 millirads/hour

After Treatment 220 - 240 millirads/hour 42 millirads/hour

Table 2. De-radioactivation of Cobalt 60 by exposure to Brown's Gas flame for less than 10 minutes. 1991 experiments conducted by Baotou Nuclear Institute # 220, People's Republic of China.

In another test conducted by Yull Brown before a public audience including U.S. Congressman Hon. Berkeley Bedell with committee responsibilities in this area of concern, the experiment ran as follows as reported by the press:

Using a slice of radioactive Americium ... Brown melted it together on a brick with small chunks of steel and Aluminum ... After a couple of minutes under the flame, the molten metals sent up an instant flash in what Brown says is the reaction that destroys the radioactivity. Before the heating and mixing with the other metals, the Americium, made by the decay of an isotope of Plutonium, registered 16,000 curies per minute of radiation. Measured afterward by the [Geiger Counter], the mass of metals read less than 100 curies per minute, about the same as the background radiation in the laboratory where Brown was working. [4]

This experiment indicated a reduction of radiation in the order of over 99% (to about 0.00625 of original level) -- in less than 5 minutes, with minimal handling. The improvement in the de-radioactivation process from about 50% to nearly 100% has come only with persistent research over the decades by Brown and his colleagues. The Brown's Gas generating units that produced such effects are not expensive -- a far cry from the multi-million processes tabled by atomic energy agencies worldwide. They are powered by low energy requirements and require only small volumes of water, at most a few litres per hour as fuel. Furthermore, the training required for operation is minimal.

The Hon. Bedell has reported, "it has been my good pleasure to witness experiments done by Prof. Yull Brown in which it appeared to me that he significantly reduced the radioactivity in several nuclear materials. Under the circumstances, I believe it is very important for our federal government to completely investigate Dr. Yull Brown's accomplishments in this area." [11]

On August 6, 1992, almost a year after the Chinese nuclear report, Prof. Yull Brown made a special demonstration to a team of 5 San Francisco field office observers from the United States Department of Energy, at the request of the Hon. Berkeley Bedell. Cobalt 60 was treated and resulted in a drop of Geiger readings from 1,000 counts to 40 -- resulting in radioactive waste residue of about 0.04 of the original level. Apprehensive that somehow the radioactivity might have been dispersed into the ambient environment, the official requested the California Department of Health Services to inspect the premises. The health services crew found no radioactivity in the air resulting from this demonstration nor from another repeat demonstration held for their benefit. [11] This sequence of experiments was monitored by the Hon. Daniel Haley, the legislator who established the forerunner New York State Energy Research and Development Agency.

Other demonstrations, measured with under more sophisticated protocol and instrumentation have been conducted before Japanese nuclear experts, including four scientists from Toshiba and Mitsui: Cobalt 60 of 24,000 mR/hr reduced with one treatment to 12,000 mR/hr. The Japanese scientists were so excited by what they saw that they immediately purchased a generator and air shipped it to Japan. They sent Prof. Brown a confidential report of some of their results. Subsequently, they tried to obtain additional Brown's Gas generators directly from the People's Republic of China.

Figure 1. A Brown's Gas generator manufactured in the People's Republic of China by NORINCO

Prof. Brown, during his 27 years of studying water and its atomic structure and experimenting with the disassociation of water into its constituent parts of hydrogen and oxygen has noted that there are many variations of the atomic structures of the various waters dependent on the mixing of the three hydrogen isotopes (1H - protium, 1H2 - deuterium, 1H3 - tritium) which combine into 6 combinations of hydrogen and the 6 oxygen isotopes (8O14, 8O15, 8O16, 8O17, 8O18, and 8O19) -- or practically, 36 types of water -- 18 are stable and 18 have short life.

Accordingly, because of all of these types of water, we could be 36 types of Brown's Gas, and even more with special modifications of the gas; at the moment only a few are under investigation. His studies have led to the observation that the anomalous behaviour of water depends on the ability of water to modify energetics and physicochemical properties of the various permutations of the hydrogen/oxygen isotopes. As is known the lifetime, modes of decay and thermal neutron capture cross-sections vary significantly between these isotopes; likewise, Brown has seen the various stages of his gas offer very different effects. He has found that he can modulate a number of suitable mixes for his technology, thus providing an engineering tool in decontamination of nuclear wastes. [2]

interaction with non-Hertzian energy

In the 1960's, the Canadian engineer, Wilbert Brockhouse Smith, a major player in advancing the technical aspects of radio and television broadcasting in Canada began experimenting with Caduceus coils and noted that this counterwinding set-up produced anomalous effects and proposed that other experimenters attempt to follow this new area of investigation. These coils became popularly known as the "Smith Coils" and he believed that they were producing, in summation, a "scalar" field -- a non-Hertzian phenomenon. It is now known that similar non-Hertzian phenomena may also be obtained by mobius, and bi-filar coils which oppose their alternating currents by virtue of their unique geometry. The resultant of all electromagnetic energy is to sum to zero in accordance with Newton's third law, thereby orthorotating the zero-point-energy into our 3-space. [26]

A recent investigation by Dr. Glen Rein and T. A. Gagnon, assisted by Prof. Elizabeth A. Rauscher (Nuclear Physics, University of California, Berkeley and with Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, William Van Bise -- and with some support by Professor Emeritus (Material Sciences) William A. Tiller of Stanford University -- involved a modified Caduceus coil. [24, 26]

The 8.2 ohms coil indicated no electromagnetic fields even though powered with only 3 mA, 5 watt amplifier/mixer. Yet, the field from this set-up was able to decrease ambient radioactivity associated with environmental isotopes from 0.5 mR/hour to 0.0015 mR/hr -- or by 97%.

In contrast, Cobalt 60 increased its radioactivity from 150 to 250 mR/hour, in response to the non-Hertzian energy. Thus the same non-Hertzian energy field produced opposite effects on different radioactive isotopes. [26]

This type of experiment, which may have been highly dependent on the a mix of waveform signaling, involving superimposition of square waves containing specific repetition rates developed by Dynamic Engineering of Sacramento, California, indicates that research and development can determine the fine-tuning of special non-Hertzian procedures for the transmutation of specific isotopes.

Another non-Hertzian approach to advanced transmutation has been hypothesized by the nuclear scientist, Tom E. Bearden and involves the use of "Whittaker scalar interferometry" directed in such a way as to directly extract electromagnetic energy from the mass of the radioactive nuclei. [3]

In this system, the fundamental nuclear rates would be altered by way of "de-materializing" nuclei into constituent hidden (scalar) electromagnetic Whittaker energy. E. T. Whittaker was a prominent British mathematician who published two papers of interest in this matter: 1) a general analysis of force fields into constituent fields -- differentiated into "undulatory", wave-disturbance propagation, longitudinal in character; and 2) an analysis of electrons as being characterized by two scalar potential functions. [29, 30] His work successfully pre-dates the experimental work of Y. Aharanov and D. Bohm who demonstrated that in the total absence of electromagnetic force fields, the potentials remain and can interfere at a distance to produce real effects of charged particle systems. Force fields are actually effects generated from potentials. [1]

The figure below shows the conceptual use of a Whittaker Interferometer in the endothermic (energy extraction, electrostatic cooling) mode, for use in direct extraction of the electromagnetic energy constituting the radioactive nucleus.

By exposing the atomic nucleus to an externally engineered Whittaker-structured potential with a deterministic internal electromagnetic wave pattern, the internal structure of the mass potential may be slowly altered, changing the targeted atomic nucleus by gradually inducing a direct alteration of its internal Whittaker electromagnetic bi-wave composition.

Figure 2. Whittaker interferometer in endothermic mode for energy extraction from the mass potential of radioactive nuclei.

A process based on this hypothesis remains proprietary, pending patent application.

____________________________________________________________________________________

This paper has been possible by the advice and help of Tom E. Bearden, John O'M Bockris, Yull Brown, Olivier Costa de Beauregard, Hal Fox, Elizabeth A. Rauscher, Glen Rein, William A. Tiller, Tom Valone, William Van Bise.

References

1. Aharonov, Y. and D. Bohm. Significance of electromagnetic potentials in the quantum theory. Physical Review, Second series. Vol. 115, Number 3., August 1, 1959. p. 485-491. [In the total absence of electromagnetic force fields, the potentials remain and can interfere at a distance to produce real effects of charged particle systems. Forced fields are actually effects generated from potentials. See: Whittaker's two papers and research by T. E. Bearden on radioactive neutralization.]

2. Anomalous water -- explained by Brown's Gas research. Planetary Association for Clean Energy Newsletter. Vol. 6 (4), July, 1993. p. 11 - 12.

3. Bearden, T. E.. A redefinition of the energy ansatz, leading to a fundamentally new class of nuclear interactions. In: Proceedings of the 27th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, San Diego, California. 1992. IECEC, c/o American Nuclear Society. Vol. IV. p. 4.303 - 4.310.

4. Bird, Christopher. The destruction of radioactive nuclear wastes: does Professor Yull Brown have the solution ? Explore ! Volume 3, Number 5. 1992. p. 3.

5. Brown, Yull. Welding. U.S. Patent 4,014,777. March 29, 1977. ["The invention also relates to atomic welding to which the mixture {of hydrogen and oxygen generated ion substantially stoichiometric proportions} is passed through an arc causing disassociation of both the hydrogen and oxygen into atomic hydrogen and oxygen which on recombination generate an extremely hot flame."]

6. Brown, Yull. Arc-assisted oxy/hydrogen welding. U.S. Patent 4,081,656. March 28, 1978.

7. Bruch, R., Elizabeth A. Rauscher, H. Wang, T. Tanaka and D. Schneider. Bulletin of the American Physical Society. Volume 37, 1992. [Discusses nature of variable decay rates of the radioactive nuclides, and the basis for their interaction with electromagnetic and gravitational forces].

8. Bruch, R., Elizabeth A. Rauscher, S. Fuelling, D. Schneider. Collision processes of molecules and atoms. In: L. Byass, editor. Encyclopedia of applied physics. American Institute of Physics. 1993. [Discusses nature of variable decay rates of the radioactive nuclides, and the basis for their interaction with electromagnetic and gravitational forces].

9. Costa de Beauregard, Olivier. The expanding paradigm of the Einstein Theory. In: Andrija Puharich, editor. Iceland Papers. New York. Essentia Research Associates. 1979. 190 p.; p. 161-189.

10. Dudley, H. C.. Radioactivity re-examined. CAEN Editors. April 7, 1975. [Review of deviation of radioactive decay rates].

11. Haley, Daniel. Transmutation of radioactive materials with Yull Brown's Gas -- 2500% radioactivity reduction. Planetary Association for Clean Energy Newsletter. Vol. 6 (4), July, 1993. p. 8 -9.

12. Harada, K. and Elizabeth A. Rauscher. Unified theory of Alpha decay. Physical Review. Volume 169, 1968. P. 818

13. Harada, K. and Elizabeth A. Rauscher. Alpha decay of Po212 Pb208, , Po210 Pb206, treated by the Unified Theory of Alpha decay. UCRL-70513, May, 1967.

14. Kervran, C. Louis. Biological transmutations. Magalia, CA. Happiness Press. 1989. 163 p.

15. Kervran, C. Louis. Transmutation of the elements in oats: new analyses. Planetary Association for Clean Energy Newsletter. Vol. 2 (3), July/August 1980. p. 4-6.

16. Kervran, C. Louis. Transmutation à faible énergie. Paris Maloine. 1972.

17. Magos, L. and T. W. Clarkson. Volatilization of mercury by bacteria. British Journal of Industrial Medicine. October, 1964. p. 294-8.

18. Rabzi, Georgiy S. Mechanism of low temperature transmutation. In: John O'M. Bockris. Proceedings of Low-energy Transmutation Conference, Texas A&M University, June 19, 1995. [Available from New Energy News, P. O. Box 58639, Salt Lake City, Utah 84158-8639; (801) 583-6232, fax: 583-2963]

19. Rauscher, Elizabeth A. and R. Bruch. S-matrix theory of Alpha decay. [Book manuscript in progress.]

20.. Puharich, Andrija [Henry K.]. Successful treatment of neoplasms in mice with gaseous superoxide anion (O2) and Ozone (O3) with rationale for effect. New York. Essentia Research Associates. [Presented to Sixth Ozone World Congress. International Ozone Association. May 26-28, 1983. Washington.] 89 p. [Pages 5-7 discuss numerous in vitro biological transmutation or Kervran reactions.]

21.. Puharich, Andrija [Henry K.]. Method and apparatus for splitting water molecules. U.S. Patent 4,394,230. July 18, 1983.

22.. Rauscher, Elizabeth A.. Study and application of the modification of nuclear decay rates by changes in atomic states. Tecnic Research Laboratories, Nevada. April, 1993. 28 p. [Protocol for design, test and implementation of decay rate change effects to nuclear waste materials].

23. Rauscher, Elizabeth A. The properties of Plutonium and comparison to other metallic elements. University of California, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. February 23, 1991. [Set basis for variable decay rates of the radioactive nuclides -- and their interaction with electromagnetic and gravitational forces].

24.. Rein, Glen. Ability of non-Hertzian energy to modulate Cobalt-60 radioactivity. [Manuscript prepared for Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency presentation by the Planetary Association for Clean Energy]. 1 sheet. 1995.

25.. Rein, Glen. Utilization of a cell culture bioassay for measuring quantum fields generated from a modified Caduceus Coil. In: Proceedings of the 26th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, Boston, Massachusetts. IECEC, c/o American Nuclear Society. August, 1991. 4 pages. [Specific details regarding protocol and procedure used for modulation of radioactivity].

26. Smith, Wilbert B.. The new science. Ottawa. The Planetary Association for Clean Energy. 1995. Keith Press. 1964. 72 p.

27. Soinski, A. J., Elizabeth A. Rauscher and J. O. Rasmussen. Alpha particle amplitude and phases in the decay of 253Es. Bulletin of American Physical Society. Volume 18, 1973. p.768. [Modulation of decay rate of radionuclides by extra nuclear environmental conditions].

28. Yull Brown's Gas. Planetary Association for Clean Energy Newsletter. Vol. 6 (4), July, 1993. p. 10 - 11.

29. Whittaker, E. T.. On the partial differential equations of mathematical physics. Mathematische Annalen. Vol. 57,. 1903. p. 333-355. [Demonstrates that a standing scalar potential wave can be decomposed into a special set of directional electromagnetic waves that convolute into a standing scalar potential wave. As a corollary, then, a set of bi-directional electromagnetic waves -- stress waves -- can be constructed to form such a wave in space. Whittaker's wave represents a standing wave of variation in the local curvature of vacuum.]

30. Whittaker, E. T.. On an expression of the electromagnetic field due to electrons by means of two scalar potential functions. Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society. Vol. 1. 1904. p. 367-72. [Shows how to turn a standing scalar potential wave back into electromagnetic energy, even at a distance, by scalar potential interferometry, anticipating and greatly expanding the famous Aharonov-Bohm effect, predating the modern (Bohm) hidden variable theory of quantum potentials. Such a procedure could be developed to neutralize radioactive nuclei.]

Clean Energy Review - Article 1

(C) All Rights Reserved. The following article is copyrighted by the author and is published on this web site solely for educational purposes. The text may not be downloaded, copied or distributed without the express consent of the author.

Clean Energy Review

Our Association is pleased to submit this technical and scientific discussion to the Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency's (CEAA) Panel reviewing the concept for deep geologic disposal of nuclear fuel wastes proposed by Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL). We are grateful for the participant funding provided by CEAA towards the review of the proposal as well as analysis of the broad range of nuclear fuel waste management issues.

We believe that our review is constructive and that it includes significant new expertise in frontier science and technology concerning nuclear fuel waste management. We also believe that our submission's thesis, if accepted and further investigated, will result in lower risk, in massive savings and will introduce a new area of exportable technological advantage and expertise for Canada. It will also provide an infrastructure for an effective and efficient management procedure of nuclear waste in general.

The review is the result of collaborative networking of scientists worldwide and we take pride in being able to organize this clean alternative initiative.

Acknowledgements

This submission has been prepared with the interventions of:

Lt. Col. (retired) Tom E. Bearden

Prof. Emeritus Dr. John O'M Bockris

Prof. Yull Brown

Prof. Pelayo Calante

Prof. Dr. Olivier Costa de Beauregard

Dr. Hal Fox

Lan Jin, M. Eng

Dr. Andrew Michrowski

Prof. Elizabeth A. Rauscher

Dr. Glen Rein

Lioudmila Ter, M. Eng

Prof. Emeritus William A. Tiller

Prof. Tom Valone, P.E.

William Van Bise, P.E

Prof. Meludin Veledar

We are also grateful for useful contributions of:

Prof. Phillip Crabbé

Kristopher Weiss

General Considerations

We find that The Environmental Impact Statement on the Concept for Disposal of Canada's Nuclear Fuel Waste (AECL-10711, COG-93-1 and its companion Summary, AECL-10721, COG-93-1) have been prepared with care and diligence. Clearly, years of serious research and effort are behind this Statement -- as well as expenditures of many millions of dollars.

Alternatives for the disposal of nuclear fuel waste have been assessed by Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL). For Canada, disposal in space and the conventional "transmutation" methods are "expensive". The geological disposal concept has three variants: a) ice sheet disposal; b) seabed disposal; and, c) land-based geological disposal. The ice sheet disposal is not available in Canada while the sea-bed disposal system presents considerable risks.

In the view of AECL, the land-based geological disposal is a reliable option for Canada. This is because the Canadian Shield has many characteristics favourable for disposal, namely stability which enhances the protective function of the geosphere, assuring long-term predictability of the nuclear fuel waste disposal conditions in subterranean vaults.

AECL also considers it favourable for a disposal medium for Canada to be widely distributed geographically, allowing flexibility in siting, and to be widely distributed in regions of low topographic relief, where the driving force of groundwater movement in the rock is likely to be low.

Plutonic rock of the Canadian Shield has all of these favourable characteristics: The Canadian Shield is one of the most stable geological regions in the world.

The disposal vault, the vault seals and the disposal containers appear to be well designed.

Two alternatives for emplacement of buffer have been investigated: a) compacting the materials in place. b) using precompacted block. We suggest that the first one is better because the hydraulic conductivity of bentonite (main component of the buffer can be decreased by increasing its density through compacting). (See Appendix II)

We are afraid that between precompacted block the hydraulic conductivity would be high and for this reason, the buffer and backfill barrier would weaken and several radionuclides might reach the low permeability rock. (see Figure. 7.10 on page 306.)

Cost Recovery ?

While the engineering studies demonstrate care in their development, the examination of cost recovery for the concept selected by Atomic Energy of Canada Limited is ambiguous.

Only pages 77, 231 and 265 contain some paragraphs concerning this important subject. And then, only in one of them, page 265, is it mentioned that the utilities with nuclear generating will have enough to compensate for the economic cost of the nuclear fuel disposal -- from $ 20 to 40 billion 1991 dollars. It is stated:

... the utilities with nuclear generating stations are including the cost of managing used fuel in the rates currently being charged to electricity consumers.

One is led to belive that the cost of disposal is included in the rates being charged by Ontario Hydro, Hydro-Quebec and New Brunswick Power for electricity. The amount charged is estimated to be sufficient to fund implementation of the proposed disposal concept, with operation of a disposal facility beginning in 2025. (See details in Appendix I) Yet a recent, pre-election examination by the Government of Ontario revealed a negligible portion of such reserve as being designated for this purpose.

In the Environmental Impact Statement, no consideration has been given to:

1) the actual de-commissioning of nuclear power plants;

2) what to do with radioactive concrete and metals from de-commissioned nuclear power plants; and,

3) the other different types of radioactive waste.

No consideration appears to have been given to the cost of de-commissioning the nuclear power plants which are aging and fast approaching their 30-year life expectancy because of metal fatigue and crystallization by neutron bombardment. All metals in the first loop in the power plants -- reactor, steam generator, piping, water pumps, valves, filters are all radioactive and contaminated. The materials in the second -- hermetic -- loop: metal cladding and concrete are also radioactive. No concept has been tendered for their safe disposal by AECL.

We are still faced with considerable other radioactive waste problems in Canada. Nuclear power plants contribute about 80% of low-level waste. Industry contributes about 13%, Academic institutions another 5.5%. Medical institutions about 1.5 %. [These figures are from the State of Ohio as part of the Midwest Compact and should compare with Ontario-Quebec conditions. Then there are situations like the Albright and Watson [formerly ERCO] Varenne's 900,000 tonnes of radioactive wastes. Federal nuclear waste management officials refuse to manage this Quebec problem because these wastes are not directly associated with the development, application or use of nuclear energy. A part of the waste was being buried under highways.] Though these other wastes are not within the direct purview of AECL's Environmental Impact Statement, the public's realization of the enormity of the costs involved of the global radioactive waste price tag is at best unpredictable and could border on outrage once consumers would start paying for these.

The cost of the project will be approximately $75.00 to $ 150.00 per family per year in extra electrical cost, considering the population of all Canada and assuming that ultimately all Canadians would pitch in.

But for Ontario, New Brunswick and Quebec alone, (the provinces with nuclear power plants) without federal assistance, new charges of approximately $ 200.00 to $ 400.00/ year per family, or between $50.00 and $ 100.00 per invoice would have to be levied. To add the costs of other nuclear wastes would indeed tip the heavy burden to intolerable levels.

We believe, that cost recovery is not in fact being realistically assimilated in current rates applied to electricity consumers.

We also believe that the true cost of the proposed disposal facility is too elevated for the Canadian consumer to accept, and too high for the federal and provincial budgets to absorb.

It is imperative to examine alternatives radically less onerous in capital expenditures, presenting less risk in handling and decontamination, allowing greater flexibility in implementation both in terms of siting and in scheduling.

We are proposing such an alternative herewith: advanced transmutation.

The nature of the conventional transmutation "alternative"

-- actinide partitioning and transmutation --

reviewed by AECL in its Environmental Impact Statement

Conventional transmutation is a nuclear process and transforms one nuclide into another. It is possible to transform some radionuclides with long half-lives into either stable nuclides or nuclides with shorter half-lives.

An example is transmutation of Uranium 238 into Plutonium 239. [A nuclide is a species of atom characterized by the composition of its nucleus. A nuclide is typically identified by a chemical symbol (which indicates the number of protons in the nucleus) and the total number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus.

The conventional transmutation process is achieved by bombarding radionuclides with subatomic particles in either nuclear reactors or particle accelerators designed for this purpose.

Disposal of nuclear fuel waste by transmutation would first require reprocessing the used fuel and separating the resulting species according to the different nuclear methods required to transmute the different species.

Conventional transmutation is known in the nuclear scientific community as "actinide partitioning and transmutation". It is also known as "nuclear incineration" -- not to be confused with chemical incineration of nuclear wastes. The application of greatest potential at present is the transmutation of waste actinides in fission reactors. This has obvious attraction since otherwise the long-lived actinides would remain a potential hazards for very long periods of time. The actinide elements are considered to be in two groups: 1) the fuel actinides: Th, U and Pu that are used directly as nuclear fuel by neutron capture; 2) Pu, Np, Am, Cm and higher products that find their way mainly into waste streams from high level waste in reprocessing plants and it with these that the partitioning and transmutation process is principally concerned with.

To recycle the actinides for transmutation, these have to be first separated ("partitioned") from the wastes and converted into a form suitable for insertion into a reactor. The actinides have to be recycled many times to "burn" them up sufficiently. The fission products (FPs) remain with the wastes, with one or two possible exceptions; they cannot be recycled usefully like the actinides. A high degree of overall recovery is required -- about 99%, but the waste material need not necessarily be rigorously purified.

It must be emphasized that Canada does not have such a reprocessing or "partitioning" facility.

The second phase involves "fuel fabrication", in which the waste actinides are incorporated in reactor fuel elements. This could be done either homogeneously, with the waste actinides uniformly dispersed throughout the normal fuel, or heterogeneously with the waste actinides concentrated in special fuel elements, sometimes referred to as "target" fuel elements; there also exist intermediate versions.

The third step is "reactor irradiation", in which the waste actinides are partially burnt up -- or transmuted. The scale of operation required is such that the power reactor would have to be used to provide sufficient capacity. These would be of any of the familiar types, especially LWRs (Light Water Reactors) or FBRs (Fast Breeder Reactor)

The HWR (Heavy Water Reactor) CANDU is not included in this category.

The reprocessing of the fuel to recover U and Pu (and the Th fuel cycle) is required. Recycling of the waste actinides may take many cycles since it is not feasible to obtain adequate destruction during a single phase.

Again, It must be emphasized that Canada does not have such a reprocessing facility.

The actinide partitioning and transmutation just outlined is shown as a block flow sheet.

IAEA flow sheet description of the main features of the normal and the partitioning-transmutation cycles. The partitioning-transmutation cycle requires additional steps In total actinide recycling fuel and waste actinides must be recovered from these and re-introduced at appropriate points in the cycle

It differs from that of the normal fuel cycle in the inclusion of the partitioning step and the

recycling of the waste actinides, which are shown dashed; in the normal cycle the fission products (FPs) plus waste actinides go directly to conditioning interim storage, and disposal.

It might appear from the above Figure that actinide partitioning and transmutation would have only a small impact on the fuel cycle; but this is not so: Recycling of the waste actinides affects all parts of the cycle.

In the heterogeneous recycling case there will generally be additional special plant, not shown, for the handling the waste actinides, in parallel with the main line. There will almost certainly be a special fabrication plant, for the target fuel, and there may also be a special reprocessing plant for the spent target fuel, or at least the head-end part of such a plant.

The properties of some of the waste actinide nuclides make them difficult to handle.

Several kilowatts of head may have to be dissipated and substantial neutron shielding will be required necessitating remote operation. The problems are less in homogeneous that in heterogeneous recycling, but the decay heat is still significant in the former case, and neutron shielding is still needed. the neutron shielding will, incidentally, also serve as gamma-ray shielding, while remote operation serves to control alpha hazards.

Particularly severe problem areas in the handling of the waste actinides can be identified to be:

1) Final stages of partitioning;

2) Assembly of target fuel element in heterogeneous recycling;

3) Break down of spent fuel for reprocessing;

4) Conversion of trivalent actinides to oxide;

5) Fuel fabrication; and,

6) Transport of fresh and spent fuel

It is necessary to estimate the incremental cost of "actinide partitioning and transmutation" fuel cycles compared with normal fuel cycles. Many major cost items are common to both cycles and do not contribute to the increments. However, increased costs exist for:

1) The HLW (high level waste) partitioning plant, which does not exist in the normal cycle.

2) The fuel fabrication plant, which requires more remote operation and maintenance, compared with remote operation and "hands-on" maintenance in the normal cycle.

3) Fuel transport, since (a) neutron shielding and heat dissipation in the "actinide partitioning and transmutation" case will reduce the capacity of the transport flasks, and (b) fresh fuel must be transported in the same flasks as spent fuel.

There seems to be fairly general agreement that "actinide partitioning and transmutation" would double the total reprocessing cost, i.e. that partitioning cost would be comparable with normal reprocessing costs. This is essentially because the plants concerned are judged to be of similar complexity.

Estimates have been documented from two sources. The Ispra Laboratory values for the "actinide partitioning and transmutation" cycle are $ 360/kg HM (heavy metal) higher than those for the normal cycle, this being the estimated cost of the partitioning step itself. The difference in the ORNL (Oak Ridge National Laboratory) case is made up of $ 195/kg HM for reprocessing waste treatment plus $240/kg HM for fuel fabrication waste treatment. Agreement between the Ispra and ORNL figure is reasonable, but it should be noted that different ground rules have been applied.

Estimates of fuel fabrication costs tend to indicate that the introduction of "actinide partitioning and transmutation" would result in at least 50% increase over the normal fuel cycle cost.

Overall, the introduction of "actinide partitioning and transmutation" is estimated to add about 5% to the total fuel cycle costs, which can be regarded as tolerable. There may, however, be additional costs which are difficult to quantify and may be large.

There are increases in short-term radiological risks, affecting mainly those engaged in the nuclear industry rather than the general public.

The reduction in the potential long-term hazard of the HLW and other wastes is, of course, the incentive for actinide partitioning and transmutation. The reduction is, however, less than might have been hoped because the overall decontamination factors obtainable under realistic conditions be only in the range 50-100, while the hazard reductions are smaller again.

Since the long-term hazards are already considered to be low, there is little incentive to reduce them further by actinide partitioning and transmutation. Indeed, the incremental cost of introducing actinide partitioning and transmutation appears to be unduly high in relation to the prospective benefits.

We note again that Canada dose not have a reprocessing facility required for actinide partitioning and transmutation. We also note that the waste actinides from partitioning and the fuel actinides go to fuel fabrication, and after that would be used mainly in fast reactors, which Canada does not, nor intends to have. Effectively, this conventional transmutation procedure would force Canada to export nuclear materials.

Because of the present low prices for uranium -- this is one of the reasons why Canada is not interested in using recycling nuclear fuel from actinide partitioning and transmutation process -- there are no incentives to recycle plutonium in LWRs (light water reactor).

Therefore several states (USA, Spain, Sweden, and others) have opted for direct disposal of the spent fuel, whereas some states still hang on with the reprocessing of spent fuels in order to recover plutonium (France, U.K., Commonwealth of Independent States and Japan). Other states consider both options e.g. Federal Republic of Germany. Initially, the recovered plutonium was foreseen to fuel fast reactors, but because of the same reason (low uranium price the deployment of this reactor type will be delayed for at least another 20 to 40 years.

Hence, as an alternative, the recycling of Pu in LWR is considered, where the reprocessing technology is established instead of its use in fast reactor. This, however, will further increase the formation of minor actinides.

Different versions of conventional transmutation are known and discussed in the literature:

a) by photons

b) by neutrons

c) by charged particles

If nuclear energy generation is to be used by future generations, then the limited supply of 235U could renew interest in the fast breeder concept. Regardless of what future fast reactor will be look like, they will have the inherent potential to "burn" most radioactive waste. Therefore the development of the minor-actinide-containing fuel cycle for fast reactors is an essential task in keeping the nuclear energy option open. Scientists are thinking so far in the future because in fact the use of actinide partitioning and transmutation fuel is expensive.

It may be appropriate to note that the current U.S. National Energy Strategy includes four key goals for nuclear policy: a) maintain safety and design standards; b) reduce economic risk;

c) reduce regulatory risk; and, d) establish an effective high-level nuclear waste program.

A potentially effective means of reducing the long-term radiological toxicity of high-level wastes destined for geologic disposal (primarily spent LWR fuel) is to extract the transuranic irradiation products and to destroy them by transmutation reactor or accelerator concepts. Actinide recycle was considered previously in the United States and rejected because of proliferation concerns and little perceived benefit to the viability of light water reactor (LWR) deployment or to disposal. The current US program, using new fuel processing and waste management technologies and a modular, passively safe advanced liquid metal reactor (ALMR) concept, offers the prospect of overcoming these concerns.

We concur that AECL is right in refusing this method of actinide partitioning and transmutation, not only because it is "expensive" but against Canadian policy and against national interests.

The case for Advanced Transmutation processes

Advanced Transmutation processes can handle nuclear waste on site without disturbing or affecting the ambient conditions, and can be managed, if so required, by robotics. They are inherently tunable to treat specific radioactive isotopes, as required, or mixtures thereof. The estimated capital costs are extremely low -- probably less than 1% of the AECL concept and the engineering research and development to achieve "manufacturer prototype" stages should last less than one year, based on the currently acquired experience. The duration of the process is extremely brief -- ranging from minutes to a day -- decreasing forever both present risks and hazards as well as those for future generations well into the millions of years.

Should Canada decide to embark on the Advanced Transmutation modes, it would have acquired an edge on a very exportable clean technology.

deviations of decay rates

Since the discovery of natural radioactivity, it was generally believed that these processes obeyed orderly, simple decay rate formulae and that nuclear processes operated completely independent of extra nuclear phenomena such as the chemical sate of the system or physical parameters such as pressure or temperature. A solid body of scientific literature describes a small percentage variation of the order of 0.1 to 5% in the decay constant under a variety of chemical and physical conditions.

By way of review, for the Bohr-Rutherford model of the atom, the nucleus is composed of the heavy particles or hadron or the proton and the neutron and surrounded by a cloud of electrons (or light particles or leptons) the number of which depends on the atomic number (for neutral atoms) and also the valence state (for ionized atoms). Alpha particles are Helium nuclei, 4He.2 consisting of two protons and 2 neutrons and beta particles are electrons (negative charge) and positrons (positive charge) and gamma rays, the short wave length of the electromagnetic radiation band and the proton is a hadron. Alpha particles and protons are strongly interacting particles as are all hadrons.

The current model of beta decay is that an inter nucleon neutron spontaneously decays into a proton and an electron (or beta particle and an anti-electron neutrino, no ® p. + e. + nc. A neutrino is a zero rest mass spin 1/2 particle which conserves momentum in the decay process. There are many pure beta emitters throughout the periodic table, Carbon 14C and deuterium are two examples. Beta particles penetrate substance less deeply than gamma radiation but are hundreds of times more penetrating than alpha particles. Beta particles can be stopped by an inch of wood or by a thin sheet of aluminum foil, for example. The energy of most emitted alpha particles are stopped by a piece of paper and the most energetic gamma rays require a thick piece of lead or concrete.

Electromagnetic radiation emission from atomic processes can be in the x-ray energy range and nuclear in the x-ray and gamma ray energy range.

It is believed that all radioactive atomic nuclei decay spontaneously without prior cause at a specific and steady decay rate which differs for each radioactive isotope. Some precise measurements of half lives have been made which show deviations of the standard type decay curves which appear to depend of extra nuclear variable conditions -- non nuclear in origin and structure.

Variations in the decay constant N = Noe-lp with T1/2 = 0.693/l is based on crude instruments from some 70 years ago. Later, with more sophisticated electronics, the value of l of the decay of Beryllium was, 7Be was first shown in 1949 to deviate by 0.1% between atomic BE and molecular BeO. In 1965, the l of Niobium, 90Nb is altered by 4% between the metal and the fluoride form, as discussed by G. Emery. H. C. Dudley reported on studies that have varied decay characteristics of twelve other radionuclides with changes in the energy states of the orbital electrons, by pressure, temperature, electric and magnetic fields, stress in monomolecular layers and other physical atomic conditions.

The alteration of decay rates by extra nuclear processes may not be truly random and requires a new theoretical model. As these effects occur, the term nuclear may need to be expanded to reactions and processes involving the entire atom and even multi-atom crystal matrix forms rather than just mass-energy changes in only the nucleus.

Not too well known is a quite prodigious body of work on the persistent effects of chemical states and physical environment on the deviation in the lifetimes of nuclear decay rates from the accepted decay law. Theoretical as well as experimental research has been conducted. In 1947, R. Daudel and E. Segré predicted that under certain conditions a dependence of the decay constant on the chemical and physical environment of the nucleus should be observable and subsequent to these predictions such a dependence was experimentally observed (with R. F. Leinzinger and C. Wiegand) in the K capture decay of 7Be and the internal conversion decay of the 99m isomeric state of Technetium.

A good example of the effect of a chemical change in the nuclear environment during radioactive decay is for the intensity change of the 122-keV E2 gamma ray observed for the 90mNb isomeric state of Niobium. This effect on the decay rate for the 21 second transition was an order of magnitude greater and in the opposite direction than observed in 99mTc and was achieved at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory by J. O. Rasmussen and his colleagues, J. A. Cooper and J M. Hollander in 1965.

Natural, low-energy transmutation phenomena have been observed for centuries. In 1799, the French chemist, Nicolas Louis Vauquelin noted that hens could excrete 500% more lime that they take in as food, suggesting a creation -- transmutation of Calcium Carbonate. Many similar phenomena are noted in the scientific literature to occur in vegetation processes of plants as well, whereby new elements and minerals would inexplicably emerge. Nobel Nominee Prof. Louis Kervran replicated these numerous reports and advanced very far the understanding of natural, non-radioactive transmutations, acquiring in this pursuit a term for such transmutations, Kervran reaction, while engendering solid physics support from the Institut de Physique Théorique Henri Poincaré physicist, Olivier Costa de Beauregard who has stated since 1974 that the theory of weak neutral currents accounts for the transmutations observed, with all due respect for the physical laws of Conservation. The theory of neutral currents gave its authors, Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1979.

de Beauregard proposed the following equations for biological transmutation:

n ® p + e- + n (1)

p + n « p + n' (2)

p « p' + n + n' (3)

The Olivier Costa de Beauregard equations for biochemical transmutation

These equations imply the conversion of a neutron (n) to a proton (p) by virtual exchange processes -- the neutral currents of Weinberg. These processes produce protons ( p and p') of different energy levels; and two neutrinos ( n and n') of different energy levels. n represents the anitneutrino and e- the electron. In one state the proton will be bound to an atomic nucleus, and in the other state, it will be relatively free in a chemical binding.

Physicist Dr. Andrija Puharich managed to observe and photograph Kervran reactions in vitro, using a high-power dark-field microscope developed by the Canadian scientist, Gaston Naessens. Kervran reactions were documented by him to include the oxygen atom entering into a virtual nuclear reaction with p or n to yield 14N or 19F, using an electrolytic process similar to that of Prof. Yull Brown (discussed below), and disclosed by him as his U.S. Patent 4,394,230, Method and apparatus for splitting water molecules.

There exists as well the phenomenon of transmutative "digestion". L. Magos and T. W. Clarkson of the British Research Council Carshalton Laboratories noted disintegration of the radioactive isotope 203Hg ingested by rats, a volatilization that they ultimately attributed to such bacteria as Klebsiella aerogenes.

On June 19, 1995, Texas A&M University hosted a low-energy transmutation conference, sponsored by the "father of electrochemistry", Professor Emeritus, Dr. John O'M Bockris. Some of the papers noted anomalies in the formation of new elements in cathodes -- and definitely not sourced from contamination -- involved in cold-fusion experiments. For example: Drs. T. Ohmori and Reiko Notoya, both of Hokkaido University reported Iron formation in Gold and Palladium cathodes, Potassium changing into Calcium, Cs133 producing an element of mass 134, Na23 becoming Na24; Dr. John Dash of Portland State University reported spots of silver, cadmium and gold protruding in palladium electrodes in both light and heavy water cells; Dr. Robert Bush of California Polytechnic, Pomona, reported strontium on the surface of nickel cathodes. Very pertinent is the long-term research by Dr. Georgiy S. Rabzi of the Ukrainian International Academy of Original Ideas who reviewed his analysis of the mechanism of low-temperature transmutation, conducted since 1954. He passed out to attendees samples: a steel nut which acquired the color of copper and was reduced in size; magnetic stainless steel turned non-magnetic, asbestos which became like ceramic. No radioactivity had been observed in any of his experiments and he is convinced that radioactive wastes can be stabilized.

These observations, originating from various domains of scientific research lay a solid case of low level -- with minuscule power and signal strength and sometimes even in the natural state -- advanced transmutation. This transmutation involves a process that is very different in character from that considered by AECL in their Environmental Impact Statement.

We now proceed to the experimental results obtained by advanced transmutation which have direct bearing on the problem of disposal of nuclear waste fuel.

Interaction with ionic hydrogen and ionic oxygen

Brown's Gas has been developed by a Bulgarian-born Australian national, Prof. Yull Brown. In his process, water is separated into its two constituents, hydrogen and oxygen in a way that allows them to be mixed under pressure and burn simultaneously and safely in a 2:1 proportion.

The proprietary process results in a gas containing ionic hydrogen and oxygen in proper mixes which is generated economically and safely and which may be compressed up to 100 psi.

Brown's Gas is a "cornerstone of a technological edifice" with many commercial and industrial applications.

At this time, Brown's Gas generators are mass produced in the Bautou, a major research city in the People's Republic of China by the huge NORINCO factory which also manufacturers locomotives and ordnances -- and services the nation's nuclear industry complex. Most of these generators (producing up to 4,000 litres/hour/2.4 water at 0.45 MPa with power requirements ranging from 0.66 kW up to 13.2 kW) are marketed for their superior welding and brazing qualities, costing between $ 2,000 and $ 17,000. Some units have been used for the decontamination of radioactive materials since 1991. In general, Brown's Gas generators produce between 300 and 340 litres of Brown's Gas per 1 kW energy DC current approximately and one litre of water produces 1.866.6 approximately litres of gas. A generator which produces 10,000 litres per hour has been built specifically for the reduction of nuclear waste.

On August 24, 1991, Baotou's Nuclear Institute # 202 released a report, The results of experiments to dispose of radiation materials by Brown's Gas which establishes that experimentation on Cobalt 60 radiation source decreased radiation by about 50% or half-life of radiation -- but sometimes more radiation is decreased which needs investigation of possibilities for decreasing more of the radiation in single treatments of exposure to Brown's Gas flame, lasting only a few minutes, in the samples as described in the table below.

First Experiment Second Experiment

Source Intensity 580 millirads/hour 115 - 120 millirads/hour

After Treatment 220 - 240 millirads/hour 42 millirads/hour

De-radioactivation of Cobalt 60 by exposure to Brown's Gas flame for less than 10 minutes. 1991 experiments conducted by Baotou Nuclear Institute # 220, People's Republic of China.

The Brown's Gas generating units that produced such effects are not expensive -- a far cry from the multi-million processes tabled by AECL. They are powered by low energy requirements and require only small volumes of water, at most a few liters per hour as fuel. Furthermore, the training required for operation is minimal.

This sequence of experiments was monitored by the Hon. Daniel Haley, the legislator who established the forerunner New York State Energy Research and Development Agency.

Other demonstrations, measured with under more sophisticated protocol and instrumentation have been made before Japanese nuclear experts, including four scientists from Toshiba and Mitsui (Cobalt 60 of 24,000 mR/hr with one treatment to 12,000 mR/hr). The Japanese scientists were so excited by what they saw that they immediately purchased a generator and air shipped it to Japan. They sent Prof. Brown a confidential report of some of their results. Subsequently, they tried to obtain addition Brown's Gas generators directly from the People's Republic of China.

Prof. Brown first successfully de-radioactivated radionuclides of Cobalt 60 in his laboratory in Sydney, Australia with first experimental results of about 50%. He believes the ratio should improve with further research and development -- which understandably by the very nature of the materials, can only be conducted under regulated conditions.

A Brown's Gas generator manufactured in the People's Republic of China by NORINCO

Prof. Brown, during his 27 years of studying water and its atomic structure, experimenting with disassociation of water into its constituent parts of hydrogen and oxygen has noted that there are many variations of the atomic structures of the various waters dependent on the mixing of the three hydrogen isotopes (1H - protium, 1H2 - deuterium, 1H3 - tritium) which combine into six combinations of hydrogen and the six oxygen isotopes (8O14, 8O15, 8O16, 8O17, 8O18, and 8O19 ) -- or practically, 36 types of water -- 18 are stable and 18 have short life.

Now, because we have all of these types of water, we could have 36 types of Brown's Gas, and much more with special modifications of the gas; at the moment only a few are under investigation. His studies have led to the observation that the anomalous behaviour of water depends on the ability of water to modify energetics and physicochemical properties of the various permutations of the hydrogen/oxygen isotopes. As is known the lifetime, modes of decay and thermal neutron capture cross-sections vary significantly between these isotopes; likewise, Brown has seen the various stages of his gas offer very different effects. He has found that he can modulate a number of suitable mixes for his technology, thus providing an engineering tool in decontamination of nuclear wastes.

Our Association is disposed to organize demonstrations of the effects of Brown's Gas on nuclear materials before the panel examining AECL'S Environmental Impact Statement.

interaction with non-Hertzian energy

In the 1960's, the Canadian engineer, Wilbert Brockhouse Smith, a major player in advancing the technical aspects of radio and television broadcasting in Canada began experimenting with Caduceus coils and noted that this counterwinding set-up produced anomalous effects and proposed that other experimenters attempt to follow this new area of investigation. These coils became popularly known as the "Smith Coils" and he believed that they were producing, in summation, a "scalar" field -- a non-Hertzian phenomenon. It is now known that similar non-Hertzian phenomena may also be obtained by mobius, and bi-filar coils which oppose their alternating currents by virtue of their unique geometry. The resultant of all electromagnetic energy is believed to sum to zero in accordance with Newton's third law, thereby orthorotating the zero-point-energy into our 3-space.

In contrast, Cobalt 60 increased its radioactivity from 150 to 250 mR/hour, in response to the non-Hertzian energy.

Thus the same non-Hertzian energy field produced opposite effects on different radioactive isotopes.

Cost: less than $ 1,000 for a coil. Duration: about 24 hours. Result: up to 97 % reduction of radioactivity.

In this system, the fundamental nuclear rates would be altered by way of "de-materializing" nuclei into constituent hidden (scalar) electromagnetic Whittaker energy.

E. T. Whittaker was a prominent British mathematician who published two papers of interest in this matter: 1) a general analysis of force fields into constituent fields -- differentiated into "undulatory", wave-disturbance propagation, longitudinal in character; and 2) an analysis of electrons as being characterized by two scalar potential functions. His work successfully pre-dates the experimental work of Y. Aharanov and D. Bohm who demonstrated that in the total absence of electromagnetic force fields, the potentials remain and can interfere at a distance to produce real effects of charged particle systems. Force fields are actually effects generated from potentials.

Whittaker interferometer in endothermic mode for energy extraction from the mass potential of

radioactive nuclei.

A process based on this hypothesis remains proprietary, pending patent application, but could be demonstrated at a later date.

Our Association is disposed to organize demonstrations of the effects of scalar, non-Hertzian devices on nuclear materials before the panel examining AECL'S Environmental Impact Statement.

APPENDIX I

Economic Considerations

The cost of disposal is to be included in the rates charged by Ontario Hydro, Hydro Québec and the New Brunswick Power for electricity. The amount charged is estimated to be adequate to fund the disposal's implementation, with the operation of a disposal facility as of 2025.

It is estimated by AECL that the siting and construction of a disposal facility would cost about

$ 4 billion (1991 dollars). The facility would take about 25 years to complete. (page 77)

The estimated cost of siting, construction, operation, decommissioning, and closing the pre-disposal facility are summarized in Figure 6-18 and Table 6-5 (as described in R-Facility). Here the cost (excluding the cost of transporting used fuel) is stated as being $ 13 to $ 18.65 billion (1991 dollars). Also excluded are financing, taxes and non-routine activities including waste retrieval, which could easily double this portion of estimates, depending on economic vagaries.

The estimates of the cost of transporting about 10 million bundles of used fuel from the nuclear generating stations to the disposal facility range from $ 440 to $ 770 million (1991 dollars) for road transportation and $ 1.41 billion to 2.14 billion (1991 dollars) for rail transportation. (page 231)

The combined declared cost for the disposal concept can range from $ 18.85 to $ 19.91 billion (1991 dollars)+ financing, tax and non-routine factors that could double the cost up to $ 40 billion.

APPENDIX II

The Buffer

The container would be separated from the rock by a dense buffer material, such as compacted mixture of sand and bentonite. (Page 118)

Two alternatives for emplacement of buffer have been investigated: a) compacting the materials in place or, b) using precompacted blocks.

There are advantages and disadvantages for both methods. If the buffer were compacted in place, the sequence of emplacement activities would be to place and compact all or most of the buffer material, drill holes in the buffer large enough to accept the disposal containers, place the containers in these holes, and close the holes by compacting more buffer material above the container. The potential for worker exposure to radiation would be lower than if the buffer were placed and compacted around a preplaced container. Also, the potential for damaging a container during the compaction process would be reduced. The general procedure would be suitable for both the in-bore hole and in-room emplacement options. A detailed procedure would include provisions for quality control.

To use precompacted blocks in the in-bore hole option, appropriately shaped blocks would be placed in the borehole, leaving a hole for the container. To use precompacted blocks in the in room option, the blocks could be placed or the flour of the room and them around the container. (Page 119, paragraph 5)

Montmorillonite, the principal clay mineral in bentonite, is the most surface-active of all clays, i.e., it has a large surface area and strong absorption capacity. This surface activity gives bentonite special properties, such as a low hydraulic conductivity and an ability to absorb water and swell. The hydraulic conductivity of bentonite can be decreased by increasing its density through compaction. (Page 124)

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and

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Bowman, C. D. et al.. Nuclear energy generation and waste transmutation using an accelerator-driven intense thermal neutron source. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research. A320 (1-2), p. 336-367. 1992

Croff, A. G., J. O. Blomeke and B. C. Finney. Actinide partitioning -transmutation program - final report. I. Overall assessment. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Report, ORNL - 5566. 1980.

Croff, A. G.. The technological impacts of partitioning-transmutation on the nuclear fuel cycle.

In: W. Hage, editor. Proceedings. Second technical meeting on the nuclear transmutation of actinides. Ispra, Italy. April 21-24, 1980. Brussels. Joint Research Centre, Commission of the European Communities. EUR 6929. p. 51 - 75.

Dworschak, H., A. Facchini, B. A. Hunt, E. Campagna and M. Forno. Technical-economical evaluation of a process for actinides partitioning from HAW [High active wastes]. In: W. Hage, editor. Proceedings. Second technical meeting on the nuclear transmutation of actinides. Ispra, Italy. April 21-24, 1980. Brussels. Joint Research Centre, Commission of the European Communities. EUR 6929. p. 271 - 292.

Gai, E. V., A. V. Ignatyuk, N. S. Rabotnov, A. A. Seregin and Yu. N. Shubin. Reactor aspects of electronuclear transmutation of actinides in the heavy water high flux blankets. Analysis of problems. In: IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency). Use of fast reactors for actinide transmutation. Proceedings of a Specialists Meeting, Obninsk, Russian Federation. September 22-24, 1992. Vienna. IAEA. Tecdoc-693. 1993. p. 49 - 54.

IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency). Evaluation of actinide partitioning and transmutation. International Atomic Energy Agency Technical Reports Series. No. 214. IAEA, Vienna. 1982.

IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency). Use of fast reactors for actinide transmutation.

Proceedings of a Specialists Meeting, Obninsk, Russian Federation. September 22-24, 1992. Vienna. 1993. IAEA. Tecdoc-693. 125p.

Koch, L.. Status of transmutation. In: IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency). Use of fast reactors for actinide transmutation. Proceedings of a Specialists Meeting, Obninsk, Russian Federation. September 22-24, 1992. Vienna. IAEA. Tecdoc-693. 1993. p. 13 - 17.

Lefevre, J., G. Baudin and M. Salvatores. Partitioning and transmutation of long-lived radionuclides. In: SAFEWASTE '93, Safe management and disposal of nuclear waste, Proceedings of an International Conference, Avignon, France. Volume 1. p 416-429. 1993.

OECD Nuclear Energy Agency. Actinide and fission product separation and transmutation. Proceedings of the Information Exchange Meeting, Mito City, November 6-8, 1990. OECD # 37290. 1991.

Oliva, G.. Neutronic transmutation of transuranium isotopes in a fast breeder power reactor.

Johnson, K. D. B., and N. J. Keen. Is the nuclear transmutation of the actinides justifiable ?

Persson, G., J. O. Liljenzin, S. Wingefors, I. Svantesson. In: W. Hage, editor. Proceedings. Second technical meeting on the nuclear transmutation of actinides. Ispra, Italy. April 21-24, 1980. Brussels. Joint Research Centre, Commission of the European Communities. EUR 6929. p. 247-256.

Ramspott, L. D., J-S Choi, W. Halsey, A. Pasternak, T. Cotton, J. Burns, A. McCabe, W. Colglazier and W. W-L. Lee. Impact of new developments in partitioning and transmutation on the disposal of high-level nuclear waste in a mined geologic repository. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Report, UCRL. ID-109203. 1992.

Shmelev, A. N., G. G. Kulikov, V. A. Apse, V. B. Glebov, D. F. Tsurikov and A. G. Morozov. Radiowaste transmutation in nuclear reactors. In: IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency). Use of fast reactors for actinide transmutation. Proceedings of a Specialists Meeting, Obninsk, Russian Federation. September 22-24, 1992. Vienna. IAEA. Tecdoc-693. 1993. p. 77 - 85.

Skålberg, Mats and Jan-Olov Liljenzin. Partitioning and transmutation. A review of the current state of the art. Stockholm. Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB [Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Co.] Technical Report 92-19. October 1992. 73 p.

Sola, A.. Some preliminary results in actinide incinerations and transmutation in a thermal and in a fast reactor. In: W. Hage, editor. Proceedings. Second technical meeting on the nuclear transmutation of actinides. Ispra, Italy. April 21-24, 1980. Brussels. Joint Research Centre, Commission of the European Communities. EUR 6929. p. 281-293.

Tedder, D. W., B. C. Finney and J. O. Bloreke. Chemical processing facilities for partitioning actinides from nuclear fuel cycle waste mixtures. In: W. Hage, editor. Proceedings. Second technical meeting on the nuclear transmutation of actinides. Ispra, Italy. April 21-24, 1980. Brussels. Joint Research Centre, Commission of the European Communities. EUR 6929. p. 371-384.

Advanced Transmutation

Aharonov, Y. and D. Bohm. Significance of electromagnetic potentials in the quantum theory. Physical Review, Second series. Vol. 115, Number 3., August 1, 1959. p. 485-491. [In the total absence of electromagnetic force fields, the potentials remain and can interfere at a distance to produce real effects of charged particle systems. Forced fields are actually effects generated from potentials. See: Whittaker's two papers and research by T. E. Bearden on radioactive neutralization.]

Anomalous water -- explained by Brown's Gas research. Planetary Association for Clean Energy Newsletter. Vol. 6 (4), July, 1993. p. 11 - 12.

Bearden, T. E.. A redefinition of the energy ansatz, leading to a fundamentally new class of nuclear interactions. In: Proceedings of the 27th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, San Diego, California. 1992. IECEC, c/o American Nuclear Society. Vol. IV. p. 4.303 - 4.310.

Bird, Christopher. The destruction of radioactive nuclear wastes: does Professor Yull Brown have the solution ? Explore ! Volume 3, Number 5. 1992. p. 3.

Brown, Yull. Welding. U.S. Patent 4,014,777. March 29, 1977. ["The invention also relates to atomic welding to which the mixture {of hydrogen and oxygen generated ion substantially stoichiometric proportions} is passed through an arc causing disassociation of both the hydrogen and oxygen into atomic hydrogen and oxygen which on recombination generate an extremely hot flame."]

Brown, Yull. Arc-assisted oxy/hydrogen welding. U.S. Patent 4,081,656. March 28, 1978.

Bruch, R., Elizabeth A. Rauscher, H. Wang, T. Tanaka and D. Schneider. Bulletin of the American Physical Society. Volume 37, 1992. [Discusses nature of variable decay rates of the radioactive nuclides, and the basis for their interaction with electromagnetic and gravitational forces].

Bruch, R., Elizabeth A. Rauscher, S. Fuelling, D. Schneider. Collision processes of molecules and atoms. In: L. Byass, editor. Encyclopedia of applied physics. American Institute of Physics. 1993. [Discusses nature of variable decay rates of the radioactive nuclides, and the basis for their interaction with electromagnetic and gravitational forces].

Costa de Beauregard, Olivier. The expanding paradigm of the Einstein Theory. In: Andrija Puharich, editor. Iceland Papers. New York. Essentia Research Associates. 1979. 190 p.; p. 161-189.

Dudley, H. C.. Radioactivity re-examined. CAEN Editors. April 7, 1975. [Review of deviation of radioactive decay rates].

Haley, Daniel. Transmutation of radioactive materials with Yull Brown's Gas -- 2500% radioactivity reduction. Planetary Association for Clean Energy Newsletter. Vol. 6 (4), July, 1993. p. 8 -9.

Harada, K. and Elizabeth A. Rauscher. Unified theory of Alpha decay. Physical Review. Volume 169, 1968. P. 818

Harada, K. and Elizabeth A. Rauscher. Alpha decay of Po212 ® Pb208, , Po210 ® Pb206, treated by the Unified Theory of Alpha decay. UCRL-70513, May, 1967.

Kervran, C. Louis. Biological transmutations. Magalia, CA. Happiness Press. 1989. 163 p.

Kervran, C. Louis. Transmutation of the elements in oats: new analyses. Planetary Association for Clean Energy Newsletter. Vol. 2 (3), July/August 1980. p. 4-6.

Kervran, C. Louis. Transmutation à faible énergie. Paris Maloine. 1972.

Magos, L. and T. W. Clarkson. Volatilization of mercury by bacteria. British Journal of Industrial Medicine. October, 1964. p. 294-8.

Rabzi, Georgiy S. Mechanism of low temperature transmutation. In: John O'M. Bockris. Proceedings of Low-energy Transmutation Conference, Texas A&M University, June 19, 1995.

[Manuscript in progress]. [Available from New Energy News, P. O. Box 58639, Salt Lake City, Utah 84158-8639; (801) 583-6232, fax: 583-2963]

Rauscher, Elizabeth A. and R. Bruch. S-matrix theory of Alpha decay. [Book manuscript in progress.]

Puharich, Andrija [Henry K.]. Successful treatment of neoplasms in mice with gaseous superoxide anion (O2) and Ozone (O3) with rationale for effect. New York. Essentia Research Associates. [Presented to Sixth Ozone World Congress. International Ozone Association. May 26-28, 1983. Washington.] 89 p. [Pages 5-7 discuss numerous in vitro biological transmutation or Kervran reactions.]

Puharich, Andrija [Henry K.]. Method and apparatus for splitting water molecules. U.S. Patent 4,394,230. July 18, 1983.

Rauscher, Elizabeth A.. Study and application of the modification of nuclear decay rates by changes in atomic states. Tecnic Research Laboratories, Nevada. April, 1993. 28 p. [Protocol for design, test and implementation of decay rate change effects to nuclear waste materials].

Rauscher, Elizabeth A. The properties of Plutonium and comparison to other metallic elements. University of California, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. February 23, 1991. [Set basis for variable decay rates of the radioactive nuclides -- and their interaction with electromagnetic and gravitational forces].

Rein, Glen. Ability of non-Hertzian energy to modulate Cobalt-60 radioactivity. [Manuscript prepared for CEAA presentation]. 1 sheet.

Rein, Glen. Utilization of a cell culture bioassay for measuring quantum fields generated from a modified Caduceus Coil. In: Proceedings of the 26th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, Boston, Massachusetts. IECEC, c/o American Nuclear Society. August, 1991. 4 pages. [Specific details regarding protocol and procedure used for modulation of radioactivity].

Smith, Wilbert B.. The new science. Ottawa. The Keith Press. 1964. 72 p.

Soinski, A. J., Elizabeth A. Rauscher and J. O. Rasmussen. Alpha particle amplitude and phases in the decay of 253Es. Bulletin of American Physical Society. Volume 18, 1973. p.768. [Modulation of decay rate of radionuclides by extra nuclear environmental conditions].

Yull Brown's Gas. Planetary Association for Clean Energy Newsletter. Vol. 6 (4), July, 1993. p. 10 - 11.

Whittaker, E. T.. On the partial differential equations of mathematical physics. Mathematische Annalen. Vol. 57,. 1903. p. 333-355. [Demonstrates that a standing scalar potential wave can be decomposed into a special set of directional electromagnetic waves that convolute into a standing scalar potential wave. As a corollary, then, a set of bi-directional electromagnetic waves -- stress waves -- can be constructed to form such a wave in space. Whittaker's wave represents a standing wave of variation in the local curvature of vacuum.]

Whittaker, E. T.. On an expression of the electromagnetic field due to electrons by means of two scalar potential functions. Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society. Vol. 1. 1904. p. 367-72. [Shows how to turn a standing scalar potential wave back into electromagnetic energy, even at a distance, by scalar potential interferometry, anticipating and greatly expanding the famous Aharonov-Bohm effect, predating the modern (Bohm) hidden variable theory of quantum potentials. Such a procedure could be developed to neutralize radioactive nuclei.]

FOREWORD

You are here because you probably want to know more about HHO or perhaps want to make your own HHO generator.

It's actually as easy as it is hard, relatively speaking.

I have been introduced into this since the early 80's and my first Jar experiment was installed in our 76' VW Bug.

There was little improvement but there was no immediate need to develop it more back then.

I have gone more in depth into HHO research and development last 2006 before the year ended - due to force of necessity... I needed to survive somehow in the middle of the desert with my team - but thats another long story.

At any rate, I wish for the reader to understand that HHO electrolysis is the easy part, it's the application and the approach that requires a deeper look and understanding in order for you to appreciate and see how and why you will be able to benefit from it like I did.

I speak with confidence since I have been there, done that and been deep into this.

Before you begin reading the chosen articles I have collected in here, the reader must understand the following nuggets of wisdom needed in doing HHO experiments.

1. HHO gas is highly explosive... Dont even think of playing with it. (take my word for it)

2. HHO if controlled and managed correctly - is the safest gas to use for cooking, welding and or fuel for engines.

3. Electricity follows the path of least resistance, and so does any other form of energy, pressure or explosion;

4. Water Seeks it own level.

5. HHO is fuel; whether you use it 100% or mix it with your existing fuel... it will remain usable fuel.

6. 10 ml. per minute = 1 Liter per 100 minutes = 100 Liter per 1000 minutes. Therefore, 10 ml. of HHO = 100 Liters per 16 Hours. If you drive 8 hours a day, you are using 50 Liters of HHO gas with your fuel. With 50 Liters of HHO injected in your fuel combustion, about a third of it is oxygen - that didn't come from the trees. You want to see how green can you be? - Do the Math.

7. If your electrolyte makes brown muck! Don't use it. (The Brown Muck is Chromium Hexavalent - Extremely Cancerous) Experiment with other electrolytes or simply just Buy from stable companies who have found success with their water solutions.

8. The pre-requisite before installing HHO in any engine are: Strong Vacuum and Strong Charging. If one of both are missing or weak, see first if you can rectify the problem.

9. KEEP IT SIMPLE - SAFELY...

10. Less is more, the more electronics component or items present in your system, the more areas are prone to error or fault or leakage. The more HHO you are making, chances are, there is also more AMPS it is drawing, something will surely break. Less can really be more.

For more ideas: visit HHOINFO and HHO Games or my other Blogs and my youtube videos, there's a ton of them, just type or use the search box to zero in faster with my name after it for any subject you need to search.

Keep it simple and safe.

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